The American Civil War: The Widening Vortex (Part 2)

Talmadge Ignites The Missouri Crisis

SPEAKER_00: James Talmage Jr.

SPEAKER_00: sits at his desk in the chamber rolling a piece of paper between his fingers.

SPEAKER_00: He's 41 years old, a New York congressman, a War of 1812 veteran.

SPEAKER_00: The paper contains two sentences that he is about to read into the congressional record.

SPEAKER_00: Two sentences that will split the nation down the middle.

SPEAKER_00: We're in Washington, D.C., in the House of Representatives, on February the 13th, 1819.

SPEAKER_00: Most of the chamber is half empty.

SPEAKER_00: Missouri Territory's application for statehood is on the agenda.

SPEAKER_00: Routine business as far as anyone can tell.

SPEAKER_00: The committee has drafted an enabling act.

SPEAKER_00: Nobody expects drama.

SPEAKER_00: Talmudge has been watching Southern congressmen for weeks now, listening to them pontificate about liberty and Republican virtue while defending the expansion of human bondage into the new territories.

SPEAKER_00: The hypocrisy has worn him down to a point where staying silent feels like complicity.

SPEAKER_00: He stands, waits for recognition from the speaker.

SPEAKER_00: Mr.

SPEAKER_00: Speaker, I propose to amend the bill.

SPEAKER_00: A few heads turned.

SPEAKER_00: Wild interest.

SPEAKER_00: The further introduction of slavery or involuntary servitude shall be prohibited in said state, except for the punishment of crimes.

SPEAKER_00: And that all children born within said state, after the admission thereof into the Union, shall be free at the age of twenty five years.

SPEAKER_00: George's Thomas Cobb is on his feet before Talmudge finishes reading.

SPEAKER_00: His face is flushing red.

SPEAKER_00: You will kindle a fire which all the waters of the oceans cannot put out.

SPEAKER_00: His voice carries across the chamber.

SPEAKER_00: A fire which only seas of blood can extinguish.

SPEAKER_00: Talmudge remains standing, holding his ground while the chambered the souls into chaos around him.

SPEAKER_00: He knew this would happen.

SPEAKER_00: Plan for it even.

SPEAKER_00: For 43 years, the nation has managed to avoid this question.

SPEAKER_00: Will slavery expand with the nation or will freedom?

SPEAKER_00: Massouri's application has force with the founders postponed.

SPEAKER_00: The question can't be avoided anymore.

Why Slavery Expansion Becomes Inevitable

SPEAKER_00: This is part two of our series on the American Civil War.

SPEAKER_00: The widening vortex.

SPEAKER_00: You know how they say you can't understand someone until you walk a mile in their shoes?

SPEAKER_00: Well, I'd argue you can't understand a nation until you've walked through its history.

SPEAKER_00: Not just to highlight Rio or the sanitized version you find in textbooks.

SPEAKER_00: I mean really getting into its DNA.

SPEAKER_00: Those defining moments that shaped everything that came after.

SPEAKER_00: Those moments where paths were chosen, where decisions were made in palaces and backrooms and city streets that changed the course of millions of lives.

SPEAKER_00: I'm your host, Paul, and this is Double Helix, Blueprint of Nations, where we unravel the genetic code of countries through their most transformative moments.

SPEAKER_00: Think of it like ancestry testing, but for entire nations.

SPEAKER_00: We dig deep into the historical DNA, finding those crucial moments that made countries who they are today.

SPEAKER_00: We've watched slavery embed itself into American society from the ground up.

SPEAKER_00: From the 1619 arrival at Point Comfort through the Constitutional Convention's three fifth compromise.

SPEAKER_00: We saw how the founders chose postponement over principle, building contradictions so deep into the governmental structure that removing them would require revolution or war.

SPEAKER_00: Now, we're watching what happens when those contradictions finally demand resolution.

SPEAKER_00: Missouri applies for statehood in 1819, and suddenly the question the founders avoided is unavoidable.

SPEAKER_00: For the next forty years, Americans will try every possible compromise to postpone choosing between their principles and their profits.

SPEAKER_00: Every compromise makes the next crisis worse.

Jefferson’s Firebell Warning

SPEAKER_00: Thomas Jefferson is 76 years old in the spring of 1819.

SPEAKER_00: Retired from politics but still watching the nation, he helped Bill with the intensity of someone who knows he's running out of time to see how it all turns out.

SPEAKER_00: The mail brings news of the congressional debates over Missouri, and Jefferson reads the accounts with mounting dread.

SPEAKER_00: He sits down to write a letter to John Holmes, Massachusetts congressman.

SPEAKER_00: This momentous question, like a firebell in the night, awakened and filled me with terror.

SPEAKER_00: I consider it at once as the knell of the Union.

SPEAKER_00: A firebell in the night.

SPEAKER_00: The alarm that jolts you from sleep because everything is burning.

SPEAKER_00: Jefferson understands something that many of his contemporaries are still refusing to acknowledge.

SPEAKER_00: The Missouri crisis isn't really about Missouri.

SPEAKER_00: It is about the Constitution's fundamental flaw.

SPEAKER_00: The founders created a system that could expand geographically, but never resold whether that expansion would be slave or free.

SPEAKER_00: For 40 years, this worked.

SPEAKER_00: The Louisiana Purchase seemed to offer unlimited space, admit states in pairs, one slave, one free, and maintain sectional balance.

SPEAKER_00: The three-fifths clause gives the South disproportionate political power.

SPEAKER_00: White Americans, North and South, can avoid confronting the gap between what they profess and what they practice.

SPEAKER_00: But geography has limits, and Missouri has hit that limit.

SPEAKER_00: The debates get ugly fast.

SPEAKER_00: Southern congressmen argue that restricting slavery violates their constitutional rights, undermines state sovereignty, represents northern tyranny.

SPEAKER_00: Northern congressmen counter that allowing slavery's expansion violates the Declaration's principles, threatens free labor, betrays everything America claims to stand for.

SPEAKER_00: They're arguing past each other because both sides are defending fundamentally incompatible visions of what America should become.

The Missouri Compromise Buys Time

SPEAKER_00: Henry Clay, Kentucky's great compromiser, spends months shuffling between factions, crafting a deal.

SPEAKER_00: Admit Missouri as a slave state.

SPEAKER_00: Admit Maine as a free state.

SPEAKER_00: Ban slavery north of the 3630 parallel line in future territories.

SPEAKER_00: And it saves the Union.

SPEAKER_00: Temporarily.

SPEAKER_00: But watch what Clay actually accomplishes here.

SPEAKER_00: He hasn't solved anything.

SPEAKER_00: He bought time by drawing a line on a map, creating a firewall between North and South that everyone knows is temporary.

SPEAKER_00: The Missouri Compromise teaches American politicians a dangerous lesson.

SPEAKER_00: Sectional crises can be managed through geographic compromise.

SPEAKER_00: It works once.

SPEAKER_00: It will work twice, maybe three times.

SPEAKER_00: But each compromise makes the contradictions sharper until no line on any map can contain them.

SPEAKER_00: John Quincy Adams watches the debates from Massachusetts and writes in his diary.

SPEAKER_00: Forty-one years later, 620,000 Americans will be dead.

SPEAKER_00: Adams saw it coming.

SPEAKER_00: Jump forward quarter century to 1846.

The Wilmot Proviso Breaks The Map

SPEAKER_00: The United States is at war with Mexico, and the war is going spectacularly well from a military perspective.

SPEAKER_00: American forces under Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott are winning battle after battle.

SPEAKER_00: Mexico City will fall in 1847.

SPEAKER_00: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 will give the United States over 500,000 square miles of new territory, including California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona and New Mexico, parts of Colorado and Wyoming.

SPEAKER_00: But military victory creates political catastrophe.

SPEAKER_00: Will these lands be slave or free?

SPEAKER_00: Let me take you to the House of Representatives in August of 1846, just months after the war with Mexico begins.

SPEAKER_00: Pennsylvania Congressman David Wilmot proposes an amendment to a war appropriations bill.

SPEAKER_00: The so-called Wilmot Proviso is simple, direct, and inflammatory.

SPEAKER_00: Any territory acquired from Mexico shall be forever free of slavery.

SPEAKER_00: The reaction splits along purely sectional lines.

SPEAKER_00: Northern congressmen support it overwhelmingly.

SPEAKER_00: Southern congressmen oppose it with equal unanimity.

SPEAKER_00: The bill passes the House but it dies in the Senate.

SPEAKER_00: But the damage is already done.

SPEAKER_00: The Wilmot Proviso reveals that the Missouri Compromise's geographic solution no longer works.

SPEAKER_00: The territories acquired from Mexico don't fit neatly above or below the 3630 parallel line.

SPEAKER_00: And more fundamentally, northern politicians are no longer willing to accept slavery's expansion anywhere.

SPEAKER_00: Southerners see the Wilmot Proviso as proof that the North wants to strangle slavery by the nine rooms that it needs to expand.

SPEAKER_00: And they're not wrong.

SPEAKER_00: Many Northern politicians have concluded that if slavery can't expand into the new territories, it will eventually wither away.

SPEAKER_00: The Cordon of Freedom strategy depends on containment.

SPEAKER_00: This is what makes the compromise of 1850 necessary and ultimately unstable.

SPEAKER_00: Jump forward 30 years to 1850.

The Compromise Of 1850

SPEAKER_00: The United States has just swallowed vast new territories from Mexico after the Mexican-American War.

SPEAKER_00: California won statehood as a free state, which would upset the sectional balance in the Senate.

SPEAKER_00: The South threatens secession if their interests aren't protected.

SPEAKER_00: Henry Clay, now in his seventies and dying, summons his last reserves of political skill for one more compromise.

SPEAKER_00: The compromise of 1850 gives everyone something.

SPEAKER_00: California enters free.

SPEAKER_00: Utah and New Mexico organize without slavery restrictions, let the settlers decide through popular sovereignty.

SPEAKER_00: The slave trade ends in Washington, D.C.

SPEAKER_00: Texas gets money for its boundary claims.

SPEAKER_00: And the South gets what it really wants: an enhanced fugitive slave act with federal teeth.

SPEAKER_00: The new law doesn't just authorize federal agents to recapture fugitives.

SPEAKER_00: It requires all citizens to assist in their capture, refuse, and face six months in prison and a$1,000 fine.

SPEAKER_00: It pays commissioners ten doll if they return someone to slavery, five dollars if they declare them free, creating a financial incentive to rule in favor of slave catchers.

SPEAKER_00: And it denies accused fugitives the right to a jury trial or even to testify in their own defense.

SPEAKER_00: Let me take you to Boston on June 2nd, 1854.

Anthony Burns And Federal Force

SPEAKER_00: Anthony Burns stands before Commissioner Edward Loring in Shackles.

SPEAKER_00: He is 20 years old.

SPEAKER_00: He escaped from Richmond three months back.

SPEAKER_00: He's been working Boston docks ever since.

SPEAKER_00: Now he faces something that would have been impossible five years ago.

SPEAKER_00: Federal marshals in Massachusetts, the cradle of American liberty, preparing to drag him back to bondage under authority of national law.

SPEAKER_00: Outside the courthouse, thousands of Bostonians pack the streets.

SPEAKER_00: These aren't radical abolitionists from the fringes of society.

SPEAKER_00: These are ordinary citizens watching their city turned into a hunting ground for slave catchers.

SPEAKER_00: The hearing is theater.

SPEAKER_00: His alleged owner has produced documents claiming ownership.

SPEAKER_00: Commissioner Loring, despite his personal opposition to slavery, follows the law.

SPEAKER_00: The outcome is predetermined.

SPEAKER_00: What comes next shows how the Fugitive Slate Act transforms everything.

SPEAKER_00: President Franklin Pierce orders federal troops to escort Burns to the ship that will return him to Virginia.

SPEAKER_00: On June 2nd, 1854, it takes 2,000 soldiers, Marines, and police officers to march one man through Boston streets to the harbor.

SPEAKER_00: The cost of returning Anthony Burns to slavery exceeds$40,000, more than most Americans earn in a lifetime.

SPEAKER_00: Bostonians line the streets in protest.

SPEAKER_00: Buildings are draped in black morning cloth.

SPEAKER_00: Church bells toll as if for a funeral.

SPEAKER_00: One banner reads Kidnapper, beware.

SPEAKER_00: The image of federal bayonets and forcing slavery in the heart of free Massachusetts burns itself into northern consciousness.

SPEAKER_00: This is what makes the Fugitive Slate Act so devastating.

SPEAKER_00: It forces ordinary Northern whites to choose between their law and their conscience.

SPEAKER_00: Previously, slavery existed somewhere else in the South, where Northerners didn't have to witness it.

SPEAKER_00: Now federal law brings slavery into every northern community, making every citizen complicit in human bondage.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin Shifts Morality

SPEAKER_00: Harriet Beecher Stowe is watching all of this from Maine.

SPEAKER_00: She's been contemplating a story about slavery, but the Fugitive Slave Act transforms vague sympathy into moral urgency.

SPEAKER_00: I will write something, she tells her family, after reading about the law's passage.

SPEAKER_00: I will if I live.

SPEAKER_00: That something becomes Uncle Tom's Cabin, the novel that sells 300,000 copies in his first year and convinces millions of northern whites that slavery isn't just economically backwards or politically inconvenient, it is morally evil.

SPEAKER_00: When Abraham Lincoln allegedly meets Stowe in 1862, he reportedly says, So you're the little woman who wrote the book that started this Great War.

SPEAKER_00: The Compromise of 1850 teaches both sections a devastating lesson.

SPEAKER_00: Their fundamental values are irreconcilable.

SPEAKER_00: Northerners learn that slavery can't be quarantined from free society.

SPEAKER_00: Southerners learn that their way of life depends on institutions that free states increasingly refuse to support.

SPEAKER_00: Both sides begin preparing for the showdown that political compromise has only postponed.

SPEAKER_00: It is 1854.

Kansas Nebraska And Popular Sovereignty

SPEAKER_00: Senator Stephen Douglas of Illinois proposes a bill that would shatter the Missouri Compromise and turn Kansas territory into America's laboratory for political violence.

SPEAKER_00: The Kansas-Nebraska Act embraces popular sovereignty.

SPEAKER_00: Let the settlers decide whether Kansas allows slavery.

SPEAKER_00: It sounds democratic, let people decide.

SPEAKER_00: But it ignores fundamental questions.

SPEAKER_00: Which people?

SPEAKER_00: And it repeals the Missouri Compromise's prohibition on slavery north of the 3630 parallel.

SPEAKER_00: This enrages northerners who consider that line sacred.

SPEAKER_00: The betrayal now feels complete.

SPEAKER_00: Douglas needs Southern votes to pass his bill, and he's willing to sacrifice sectional peace for personal ambition and railroad profits.

SPEAKER_00: As expected, the result is catastrophic.

SPEAKER_00: Kansas becomes a race to see which side can get more settlers there first.

SPEAKER_00: The New England Immigrant Aid Company finances free soil settlers, providing them with rifles that they call Beecher's Bibles, after the anti-slavery minister Henry Ward Beecher, who declares that guns might be more effective than sermons in Kansas territory.

SPEAKER_00: Meanwhile, Missouri's border rufians cross into Kansas by the thousands on election days.

SPEAKER_00: They vote illegally for pro-slavery candidates and then they return home.

SPEAKER_00: The elections are farcical.

SPEAKER_00: Kansas has perhaps 3,000 legal voters.

SPEAKER_00: The pro-slavery candidates receive over 6,000 votes, many from men whose Missouri addresses are no secret.

SPEAKER_00: By 1856, Kansas contains two governments, two constitutions, and two completely different visions of what America should become.

SPEAKER_00: The pro-slavery government in LeContin claims legitimacy through federal recognition.

SPEAKER_00: The free soil government in Topeka claims legitimacy through popular support.

SPEAKER_00: And both are probably right, and both are certainly wrong.

SPEAKER_00: And both are willing to kill to prove their point.

SPEAKER_00: Let me take you to Lawrence in the Kansas Territory on the morning of May 21st, 1856.

Bleeding Kansas Turns Into Holy War

SPEAKER_00: 800 pro-slavery men march towards this free soil stronghold carrying weapons glinting in the morning sun.

SPEAKER_00: They call themselves a grand jury, legally empowered to arrest the traitors who've established Lawrence as anti-slavery territory.

SPEAKER_00: But their cannons and rifles suggest that they're more interested in destruction than in due process.

SPEAKER_00: By evening, the Lawrence Hotel is rubbed.

SPEAKER_00: The newspaper presses are destroyed, and the governor's house has burned to the ground.

SPEAKER_00: The attackers call it law enforcement.

SPEAKER_00: The victims call it the sack of Lawrence.

SPEAKER_00: Three nights later, on May 24th, John Brown Sr., the grim Old Testament patriarch who believes God has called him to break the chains of slavery, leads seven men, including four of his sons, to Pottawatomie Creek.

SPEAKER_00: What happens there will shock even a territory growing accustomed to violence.

SPEAKER_00: Brown and his men drag five pro-slavery settlers from their homes and hacked them to death with broad sores, leaving their mutilated bodies as a message.

SPEAKER_00: The price of supporting slavery just went up.

SPEAKER_00: The Pottawatomie Creek Massacre transforms the Kansas conflict from political dispute into a holy war.

SPEAKER_00: Brown becomes a terrorist or a freedom fighter depending on which side you ask.

SPEAKER_00: For abolitionists, he's God's instrument punishing slaveholders.

SPEAKER_00: For slavery defenders, he's proved that anti-slavery forces are murderous fanatics who must be stopped.

SPEAKER_00: Each atrocity becomes propaganda for the other side.

SPEAKER_00: Violence normalizes political killing, creating organizations on both sides, like the White Awakes in the North and the Minutemen in the South, that will later become the infrastructure for civil war.

SPEAKER_00: Most ominously, Americans learn that political violence can be an effective tool to get what you want.

The Caning That Shocks The Senate

SPEAKER_00: The violence even enters the holes of Congress itself.

SPEAKER_00: On May 22nd, 1856, Congressman Preston Brooks walks into the Senate chamber carrying a gold-top cane.

SPEAKER_00: Senator Charles Sumner sits at his desk writing letters.

SPEAKER_00: Sumner has just delivered the crime against Kansas, a blistering speech condemning Southern senators for the violence in the territory and mocking Senator Andrew Butler of South Carolina in personal, insulting terms.

SPEAKER_00: Brooks approaches.

SPEAKER_00: Mr.

SPEAKER_00: Sumner, I have read your speech twice over carefully.

SPEAKER_00: It is libel in South Carolina Mr.

SPEAKER_00: Butler, who is a relative of mine.

SPEAKER_00: Before Sumner can respond, Brooks begins beating him with a cane.

SPEAKER_00: Again and again, the cane rises and falls.

SPEAKER_00: Sumner tries to rise, trapped under his desk.

SPEAKER_00: He tears the desk from the floor in desperation to escape.

SPEAKER_00: Brooks keeps beating him until the cane breaks and then continues with the pieces.

SPEAKER_00: Sumner suffers injuries so severe he won't fully return to the Senate for three years.

SPEAKER_00: The reaction is immediate and telling.

SPEAKER_00: Are horrified.

SPEAKER_00: Violence has entered the Senate itself, the temple of American democracy.

SPEAKER_00: Southerners and Brooks replacement canes with inscriptions that read, hit him again.

SPEAKER_00: Some newspapers praise the attack as a justified response to Saunders' insults.

SPEAKER_00: The canning of Charles Sunders reveals how completely political discourse has broken down by this point.

SPEAKER_00: When senators can be beaten unconscious on the Senate floor and have the country celebrates it, the compromise has now become impossible.

SPEAKER_00: A little under a year later, on March 6, 1857, the Supreme Court issues its decision in Dred Scott versus Sanford.

Dred Scott Radicalizes Both Sides

SPEAKER_00: And Chief Justice Roger Tanne's majority opinion drops like a bomb on American politics.

SPEAKER_00: Dred Scott was an enslaved man who had been taken by his owner into free territory, first to Illinois, then to Wisconsin Territory, where the Missouri Compromise banned slavery.

SPEAKER_00: Scott sued for his freedom, arguing that residents in free territory made him free.

SPEAKER_00: The case worked its way up to Supreme Court, where Tanney and the Southern majority saw an opportunity to settle the slavery question once and for all through judicial fiat.

SPEAKER_00: Tanney's decision is breathtaking in its reach.

SPEAKER_00: He ruled that black people, whether free or enslaved, are not and can never be citizens of the United States.

SPEAKER_00: The founders, Tanney claims, regarded black people as beings of an inferior order with no right to which the white man was bound to respect.

SPEAKER_00: But Tanney does not stop there.

SPEAKER_00: He rules that Congress has no constitutional authority to ban slavery in any territory.

SPEAKER_00: The Missouri Compromise?

SPEAKER_00: Unconstitutional.

SPEAKER_00: The ban on slavery in territories acquired from Mexico?

SPEAKER_00: Unconstitutional.

SPEAKER_00: Every attempt by Congress to restrict slavery's expansion violates the Fifth Amendment protection of property rights.

SPEAKER_00: The decision radicalizes Northern opinion.

SPEAKER_00: Republicans are horrified.

SPEAKER_00: The highest court in the land has just declared their entire platform unconstitutional.

SPEAKER_00: Even moderate Northerners who accepted slavery where it existed are appalled by Tanney's assertion that black people can never be citizens.

SPEAKER_00: And the ruling that Congress can't ban slavery in territories suggests that the next step might be a ruling that states can't ban slavery either, that slavery is national and freedom is local.

SPEAKER_00: For southern slaveholders, the Dred Scott decision is pure vindication.

SPEAKER_00: The Supreme Court has confirmed what they've believed all along, that the Constitution protects slavery, that attempts to restrict it violate property rights, and that the North's moral crusade against slavery conflicts with the nation's fundamental laws.

SPEAKER_00: The decision doesn't settle anything.

SPEAKER_00: It inflames everything.

SPEAKER_00: Republicans refuse to accept it as final, arguing that the future Supreme Court appointments could reverse it.

SPEAKER_00: The decision becomes a rallying cry for a new party, proof that this lay power controls all three branches of government and must be defeated in the ballot box.

SPEAKER_00: Let me take you to Harper's Ferry in Virginia on the night of October 16th, 1859.

Harpers Ferry And The Power Of Martyrdom

SPEAKER_00: John Brown, the man who butchered five pro-slavery settlers at Pottawatomie Creek, has spent the last two years planning something far more ambitious than the cast of violence.

SPEAKER_00: Is convinced that enslaved people throughout the South will rise up with given weapons and leadership.

SPEAKER_00: He plans to seize the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry, harm the enslaved population, and ignite a general slave rebellion that will end slavery through violence.

SPEAKER_00: Brown leads 21 men, 16 white and 5 black, across the Potomac River Bridge into Harper's Ferry.

SPEAKER_00: They easily seize the Federal Army and Arsenal, taking several hostages, including Colonel Lewis Washington, a great-grandnephew of George Washington himself.

SPEAKER_00: Then, Brown makes his fatal mistake.

SPEAKER_00: He waits for the enslaved people he believes will join his rebellion.

SPEAKER_00: But they don't come.

SPEAKER_00: Local enslaved people facing men with guns claiming to liberate them understandably assume it is a trap.

SPEAKER_00: Word of the raid spreads quickly.

SPEAKER_00: By morning, local militia have surrounded the armory.

SPEAKER_00: By evening, federal troops under a certain Colonel Robert E.

SPEAKER_00: Lee arrive to retake the arsenal.

SPEAKER_00: The assault lasts less than three minutes.

SPEAKER_00: Ten of Brown's men are killed.

SPEAKER_00: Brown himself is captured, wounded by a sword thrust.

SPEAKER_00: His raid, which he planned to ignite a revolution, ends in complete tactical failure.

SPEAKER_00: But as political theater, it is devastatingly effective.

SPEAKER_00: Brown's trial becomes a national sensation.

SPEAKER_00: Wounded, dignified, absolutely convinced of his righteousness, Brown delivers speeches from the courtroom that electrified Northern opinion.

SPEAKER_00: Now, if it is deemed necessary that I should forfeit my life for the furtherance of the ends of justice, and mingle my blood further with the blood of my children and the blood of millions in this slave country whose rights are disregarded by wicked, cruel, and unjust enactments, I submit.

SPEAKER_00: So let it be done.

SPEAKER_00: On december second, eighteen fifty nine, Brown is hanged for treason, murder, and inciting slave insurrection.

SPEAKER_00: As he rides to the gallows, he hands the guard a note with his final prophecy.

SPEAKER_00: I, John Brown, am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty land will never be purged away but with blood.

SPEAKER_00: The execution transforms Brown from terrorist to martyr.

SPEAKER_00: Northerners increasingly see him as the righteous warrior against an evil institution.

SPEAKER_00: Southerners see him as proof that the North wants to incite slave rebellions and massacre white families.

SPEAKER_00: Both interpretations have evidence to support them.

SPEAKER_00: Both make compromise even more impossible.

SPEAKER_00: Harper's Ferry teaches Americans a final terrible lesson that violence works.

SPEAKER_00: Violence focuses attention.

SPEAKER_00: Violence polarizes opinion.

SPEAKER_00: Violence makes fence sitting impossible.

SPEAKER_00: Within 18 months of Brown's execution, the nation will be at war.

SPEAKER_00: 40 years.

Why Compromise Finally Collapses

SPEAKER_00: From the Missouri Crisis to Harper's Ferry.

SPEAKER_00: Americans spent 40 years trying to postpone the fundamental choice at the heart of the republic.

SPEAKER_00: Will slavery expand with the nation or will freedom?

SPEAKER_00: Every compromise made the next crisis worse.

SPEAKER_00: The Missouri Compromise created the precedent that geographic lines could contain moral contradictions.

SPEAKER_00: The Compromise of 1850 nationalized slavery through the Fugitive Slave Act, making every citizen complicit.

SPEAKER_00: The Kansas-Nebraska Act turned democratic settlement into armed conflict.

SPEAKER_00: Each attempt to preserve the Union through postponement made the final reckoning even more catastrophic.

SPEAKER_00: And throughout these 40 years, political violence normalized.

SPEAKER_00: Kansas taught Americans that killing worked.

SPEAKER_00: The canning taught them that violence could enter the holds of government itself.

SPEAKER_00: Harper's Ferry taught them that martyrdom could be politically powerful.

SPEAKER_00: Most dangerously, 40 years of sectional conflict created two incompatible national identities.

SPEAKER_00: By 1859, northerners and southerners increasingly saw each other not as fellow citizens with different interests, but as separate peoples with irreconcilable values.

SPEAKER_00: The widening vortex that began with Talmadge's amendment in 1819 has torn the nation apart.

SPEAKER_00: The center cannot hold.

SPEAKER_00: The choice can no longer be avoided.

SPEAKER_00: In 1860, that choice will arrive in the form of a presidential election that doesn't even appear on the ballot in most southern states.

SPEAKER_00: A purely sectional candidate will win the presidency, and the fire that Thomas Jefferson fear, the firebell in the night, will finally ignite.

SPEAKER_00: The mutual miscalculations that convince both sides the war will be short, and the first shots at Fort Sumter that shattered the last hope for peace.

SPEAKER_00: How a belief in quick victory, based on fundamental misunderstandings of each other's results, created the conditions for America's longest, bloodiest conflict.

Closing And What Comes Next

SPEAKER_00: Until then, thank you for listening.

SPEAKER_00: We will see you soon.